Which authentication source requires the installation of Palo Alto Networks software, other than PAN-OS 7x, to obtain a username-to-IP-address mapping?

Microsoft Active Directory can provide user-to-IP mappings through a User-ID agent (running separately or on the firewall) or by leveraging syslog, without requiring dedicated Palo Alto Networks software on the AD servers.

Microsoft Terminal Services (now Remote Desktop Services) allows multiple users to share a single IP address, necessitating the installation of the Palo Alto Networks Terminal Services Agent (TS Agent) on the server to accurately map individual users to their sessions and traffic.

Aerohive Wireless Access Points (and similar WAPs) can send user authentication information via syslog or RADIUS accounting for User-ID, without requiring Palo Alto Networks software installation on the WAPs themselves.

Palo Alto Networks Captive Portal is a built-in feature of PAN-OS that handles user authentication and mapping directly, without requiring additional software installation on other systems.