Which of the following ensures that a party to a dispute cannot deny the authenticity of their signature on a document or the sending of a message that they originated?

OS fingerprinting is a reconnaissance technique used to identify a remote system's operating system and has no relation to preventing denial of message origin or signature authenticity.

Reconnaissance refers to the information-gathering phase of an attack and is unrelated to the cryptographic assurance that a party cannot deny their actions.

Non-repudiation is a core security principle that uses cryptographic mechanisms such as digital signatures to irrefutably bind an action - such as signing a document or sending a message - to a specific identity. Because the signature or message origin can be verified by a third party, the originating party cannot credibly deny having performed that action.

Confidentiality ensures that data is kept secret from unauthorized parties, but it does not address the ability to prove or prevent denial of a sender's identity or actions.