Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software presents which of the following additional security concerns?

Vendors typically disclaim liability for damages resulting from software vulnerabilities through End User License Agreements (EULAs), meaning the organization deploying the software bears the risk and responsibility for mitigating vulnerabilities.

In-house developed software is not inherently less secure; it can be highly secure if developed using secure coding practices, and it may actually benefit from security through obscurity since its codebase and vulnerabilities are not publicly documented.

Because COTS software is widely deployed across many organizations, vulnerabilities are frequently discovered, published in public databases like CVEs, and accompanied by documented exploits and proof-of-concept code. This means attackers have readily accessible information to target any organization using that software, significantly increasing the risk compared to obscure or custom-built solutions.

COTS software is not inherently less secure than custom software; its security level depends on the vendor's development practices, and many COTS products undergo rigorous security testing that small in-house teams may not have resources to replicate.