Which two countermeasures help reduce the risk of playback attacks? (Choose two.)

Storing data in a NoSQL database relates to data persistence and architecture, which does not directly prevent or mitigate playback attacks on network communication.

Implementing message authentication codes (HMACs) allows for the inclusion of nonces, timestamps, or sequence numbers within messages, which can be used by the receiver to detect and reject replayed messages, ensuring message freshness.

End-to-end encryption protects the confidentiality of messages but does not inherently prevent an attacker from replaying an encrypted message if other mechanisms like nonces or timestamps are not also employed.

Removing stack traces from errors is a security measure to prevent information disclosure, but it does not address the issue of an attacker re-transmitting captured valid messages.

Using short-lived access tokens significantly reduces the effectiveness of a playback attack because intercepted tokens quickly expire, rendering them useless for unauthorized re-transmission.